The Role of Atomism in Maturidi and Ashari Thought: Defining Spirituality and Sufism through Theological Physics

The atomistic conception of nature, as developed within Islamic theology, represents one of the most sophisticated and influential philosophical frameworks in the history of Islamic thought. This thesis examines how atomism functioned as a cornerstone of both Maturidi and Ashari theological schools and explores how these atomistic conceptions profoundly shaped Islamic spirituality and Sufism. The evidence demonstrates that far from being a mere physical theory, atomism in Islamic theology operated as a comprehensive metaphysical system that bridged the apparent gap between the transcendent divine and the experienced world, providing the conceptual foundation for both orthodox theology and mystical experience within Islam.

Historical Development of Atomism in Islamic Thought

Origins and Early Development

Atomism in Islamic thought represents a remarkable intellectual achievement that demonstrates the creative synthesis of diverse philosophical traditions within an Islamic monotheistic framework. Unlike in other civilizations where atomism remained a marginal theory defended by a small number of individuals, in the Islamic world, it became the dominant conception of the universe from the third/ninth to the sixth/twelfth centuries17. This widespread acceptance and development enabled atomism to evolve into a comprehensive model of the universe that served theological purposes.

The origins of Islamic atomism can be traced to multiple sources. Atomistic philosophies emerged very early in Islamic intellectual history and represented a synthesis of Greek and Indian ideas3. However, Islamic theologians radically transformed these inherited conceptions to harmonize them with fundamental Islamic principles. While Greek atomism (as formulated by Democritus and Lucretius) was materialistic in nature and posited eternal atoms, Islamic atomism rejected the eternality of matter and emphasized God’s role as the creator of both atoms and accidents8.

The development of atomism in Islamic theology must be understood within the broader context of theological debates that characterized the early centuries of Islam. As theological schools formed and engaged in intense intellectual exchanges, atomism became a central framework for understanding the nature of reality. The Mu’tazilites were among the first to engage with atomistic concepts, but it was the Asharites who developed it most thoroughly and systematically8. The Maturidis also adopted atomistic frameworks, though with some distinctive features that reflected their particular theological commitments.

Distinctive Features of Islamic Atomism

Islamic atomism possesses several distinctive features that differentiate it from Greek atomistic theories. First, Islamic atoms are not material; they are not permanent but have only a momentary existence2. Second, Islamic atoms are not eternal but are continually brought into being and allowed to go out of existence by God, who is the only cause of everything in the universe2. Third, Islamic atomism extends beyond matter to include time itself, conceiving of time as composed of discrete, atomic moments8.

In this conception, atoms are the only perpetual objects in the physical world. While the atom itself is created at a specific point in time, after creation, it remains in existence until God wills otherwise8. Everything else besides the atom is considered “accidental,” meaning something that lasts for only a fleeting instant8. This leads to the profound Ashari principle that “No accident can last two successive instances of time”8. According to this principle, as soon as an accident is created, it immediately ceases to exist, requiring God to continually recreate each accident at each successive moment for any appearance of continuity to exist.

This atomistic conception has far-reaching implications. It means that there is no connection between one moment in time and another, and it is only God who creates each and every accident on each and every body at each specific instance of time8. The entire universe and all its processes must be directly controlled by God at each discrete moment. This leads to a denial of natural causality, as what we perceive as causal relationships are merely God’s habitual patterns of creation.

The Maturidi School and Its Atomistic Conceptions

Abu Mansur al-Maturidi and the Foundations of Maturidi Theology

Abu Mansur al-Maturidi, the eponym of the Maturidi school, was born during the reign of the Abbasid Caliph al-Mutawakkil (r. 232-247/847-861), a period marked by theological controversies, particularly the rejection of Mu’tazilite doctrines that had previously been favored at court6. Al-Maturidi emerged as a significant voice in these theological discussions, developing a theological system that would eventually become one of the three main creeds of Sunni Islam alongside Ash’arism and Atharism5.

The Maturidi school originated in Transoxiana (Central Asia) and was particularly associated with the Hanafi school of jurisprudence5. Al-Maturidi codified and systematized the theological Islamic beliefs already present among the Ḥanafite Muslim theologians of Balkh and Transoxiana, emphasizing the use of rationality and theological rationalism regarding the interpretation of the sacred scriptures of Islam5. This rational approach would later influence how the Maturidis engaged with atomistic theories.

While Maturidi is often paired with the Ashari school due to certain similarities in their theological positions, there are important differences in their approach to theology. The Maturidis emphasized that ethics can be understood through rational thought and do not necessarily require prophetic guidance5. Additionally, al-Maturidi considered aḥādīth to be unreliable when they contradicted reason5, indicating a stronger role for rationality in Maturidi theology compared to some other schools.

Maturidi’s Position on Atomism

Mehmet Bulgen’s study aims to shed light on the position of Imām al-Māturīdī on atomism, exploring whether he understood notions such as body (jism), substance (jawhar), and accident (ʿaraḍ) within the framework of traditional Islamic atomism112. This research is crucial for understanding how atomism was integrated into Maturidi theological framework.

Evidence suggests that al-Māturīdī embraced atomism and defended the prevailing kalām view that “the universe is composed of indivisible substances and accidents”1. This adoption of atomism provided al-Maturidi with a cosmological framework that supported key theological positions, particularly the affirmation of God’s continuous creation and absolute sovereignty.

The atomistic theory provided the Maturidis with a powerful conceptual tool to address questions of divine action in the world. By positing that the universe consists of indivisible substances and accidents that are created and sustained by God at each moment, Maturidi theology could affirm divine sovereignty while accounting for the apparent regularity of the natural world. This perspective allowed the Maturidis to navigate between the opposing positions of absolute determinism and unrestrained human freedom.

Development of Atomism in the Maturidi School

After Imam al-Maturidi, the development of atomism continued within the Maturidiyya kalām school112. As the school expanded beyond its original Central Asian context, atomistic theories were further refined and elaborated by subsequent generations of Maturidi theologians. This development occurred through four main stages: origin, development, consolidation, and expansion18.

During the development stage, students of al-Maturidi and those influenced by him developed his ideas further, forming an independent kalami (philosophical) group that worked to spread and defend the thought of their leader18. The consolidation stage was characterized by prolific writing of books and compiling of evidence on which Maturidi beliefs were based, making it the most important stage for consolidating this school of thought18. Finally, during the expansion stage, Maturidi dominance spread wherever Ottoman influence reached, extending eastwards and westwards into Arab lands, India, and the territories of Turks, Persians, and Byzantines18.

Throughout this development, atomism played a central role in shaping Maturidi theological perspectives on various issues, such as “continuous re-creation,” “denial of natural causality,” “miracles of prophets,” and “acts of servants”17. These applications of atomistic theory demonstrate how it was not merely a physical theory but a comprehensive metaphysical framework with implications for virtually all areas of theological inquiry.

The Ashari School and Its Atomistic Conceptions

Al-Ash’ari and the Foundations of Ashari Theology

The Ashari school of theology, founded by Abu’l-Hasan al-Ash’ari (d. 324/935), emerged as a response to the rationalistic tendencies of the Mu’tazilites. However, rather than simply rejecting rationalism, al-Ash’ari and his followers adopted many of the methodological tools of their opponents while reorienting them toward more traditionally orthodox conclusions. Atomism became a central component of this theological program.

Like the Maturidis, the Asharis were in agreement with the affirmation of atomism, with only a few exceptions such as al-Naẓẓām (d. 230/845), who was influenced by Aristotle’s denial of atomism8. The Asharis strongly affirmed the belief that both atoms and accidents were created and that matter was not eternal, distinguishing their position from that of Greek philosophers and the Muslim falāsifa8.

Distinctive Features of Ashari Atomism

The Ashari conception of atomism developed several distinctive features that had profound implications for their theological system. One of the most significant contributions was their proposition that “No accident can last two successive instances of time”8. This principle meant that for an object to remain in a particular state (such as being at rest), God must continually recreate the accident of “rest” at each successive moment. The entire universe and all that transpires in it must be directly controlled by God at each specific instance.

This atomistic view led to the Ashari rejection of natural causality. What humans perceive as causal relationships (such as fire causing burning) are merely instances of God’s customary pattern (ʿādah) of creation8. When confronted with everyday experiences that seem to contradict this view-such as the fact that humans don’t starve when they eat food or that fire cooks food-the Asharis developed the theory of “God’s habitual character” or ʿādah8. According to this theory, God has ordained upon Himself to act within certain norms, creating a perception of regularity in the universe while maintaining His absolute freedom and power.

Al-Ghazali’s Development of Ashari Atomism

Abu Hamid al-Ghazali (1058-1111) played a crucial role in the development and refinement of Ashari atomism. As one of the greatest Islamic jurists, theologians, and mystical thinkers, al-Ghazali brought together various strands of Islamic thought, including philosophy and Sufism9. His intellectual journey, described in his autobiography, involved a spiritual crisis that led him to renounce his prestigious career at the Nizamiyyah College in Baghdad and turn to Sufism after concluding that there was no way to certain knowledge or the conviction of revelatory truth except through mystical experience9.

Al-Ghazali’s approach to atomism was characterized by a sophisticated integration of kalām theology with philosophical and mystical insights. In Asharite atomism, as developed by al-Ghazali, atoms are the only perpetual, material things in existence, while everything else in the world is “accidental,” lasting for only an instant3. Nothing accidental can be the cause of anything else, except perception, as it exists for a moment3. Contingent events are not subject to natural physical causes but are the direct result of God’s constant intervention, without which nothing could happen3.

This understanding of atomism played a crucial role in al-Ghazali’s theory of occasionalism3, which denied causal efficacy to created beings and attributed all causation directly to God. Through this framework, al-Ghazali attempted to reconcile the scientific understanding of the world with the absolute sovereignty and omnipotence of God. His sophisticated development of Ashari atomism provided a metaphysical foundation for both theological orthodoxy and mystical experience.

Comparative Analysis of Maturidi and Ashari Atomism

Shared Foundations

Both Maturidi and Ashari schools shared fundamental commitments regarding atomism that distinguished them from other philosophical traditions. First, they both affirmed the created nature of atoms and accidents, rejecting the Greek philosophical notion of the eternality of matter8. This commitment aligned with the Islamic doctrine of God as the creator of everything.

Second, both schools utilized atomism to affirm God’s absolute sovereignty and continuous involvement in the world. By positing that accidents cannot endure across multiple moments of time, both schools emphasized that the apparent continuity and regularity of the natural world depends entirely on God’s continuous creative activity8.

Third, both schools employed atomism to address theological questions about divine action, human freedom, and the nature of causality. Atomism provided a metaphysical framework that allowed them to navigate complex theological issues while maintaining their commitment to core Islamic doctrines.

Points of Divergence

Despite these shared foundations, there were important differences in how the Maturidi and Ashari schools developed and applied their atomistic theories. One significant difference concerned the role of reason in theological inquiry. The Maturidis, following Abu Mansur al-Maturidi, granted a more substantial role to rational investigation, considering ethics to be understandable through rational thought alone and even deeming aḥādīth unreliable when they contradicted reason5. This more rationalistic approach influenced how they engaged with and developed atomistic theories.

Another point of divergence concerned the implications of atomism for human agency. While both schools used atomism to affirm God’s sovereignty, they differed in how they balanced this with human responsibility. The Maturidi school, in its later development, stated “unequivocally that man has the utmost freedom to act, a point of view derived directly from many verses in the Qurʾān and the Hadīth”19. This contrasted with the Ashari theory of ‘acquisition’ (kasb), which maintained that God creates human actions directly, and humans merely “acquire” the reward or punishment for those actions8.

Additionally, the Maturidis and Asharis differed in their approach to divine attributes. The Maturidis affirmed only eight attributes of Allah and tended to interpret other attributes, particularly the sifat khabariyyah (attributes based on texts that cannot be proven by rational thought), in ways that departed from their apparent meaning18. This approach reflected their distinct engagement with atomistic metaphysics and its implications for understanding divine action in the world.

Theological Implications of Their Atomistic Views

The atomistic views of both schools had profound theological implications that shaped their entire systems of thought. For the Asharis, atomism supported their theory of predestination (qadar), leading to the position that God creates human actions directly, with humans merely “acquiring” the reward or punishment for those deeds8. This theory, known as kasb (acquisition), was based directly on the Ashari belief that God re-creates accidents within atoms at each moment8.

For the Maturidis, atomism provided a framework for understanding divine sovereignty while still affirming a meaningful degree of human freedom. Their atomistic conception allowed them to navigate between absolute determinism and unrestrained human agency, developing a distinctive position on human actions that was faithful to their understanding of Quranic teachings.

Both schools used atomism to address the problem of divine attributes, though with different emphases and conclusions. The atomistic framework provided them with metaphysical tools to affirm divine transcendence (tanzih) while accounting for the descriptions of God found in Islamic scripture. This application of atomism to questions of divine attributes demonstrates how thoroughly this physical theory permeated their theological systems.

Atomism and Islamic Spirituality

Conceptual Bridges Between Atomism and Spirituality

The atomistic conceptions developed by the Maturidi and Ashari schools provided conceptual bridges between theology and spirituality in several important ways. First, by emphasizing God’s continuous creation at each moment, atomism reinforced the fundamental Islamic principle of God’s absolute sovereignty and involvement in the world. This perspective aligned with spiritual teachings about divine presence and the dependence of all creation on God.

Second, the denial of natural causality that flowed from atomistic theory encouraged believers to look beyond apparent causes to recognize God as the ultimate cause of all events. This reorientation of perception supported spiritual practices aimed at cultivating awareness of divine action in all aspects of life. When a spiritual seeker recognizes that what appears to be the natural operation of cause and effect is actually God’s direct action at each moment, this transforms their experience of reality.

Third, the atomistic conception of time as discrete moments without inherent connection emphasized the importance of the present moment. This focus on the present has significant spiritual implications, encouraging believers to be fully present and attentive to God’s continuous action rather than dwelling on the past or anxiously anticipating the future. This aspect of atomism resonates with spiritual teachings across many traditions about the importance of presence and mindfulness.

Divine Presence and Continuous Creation

One of the most spiritually significant aspects of Islamic atomism is its emphasis on God’s continuous creative activity. According to this view, the apparent continuity of objects and states is actually the result of God recreating accidents within atoms at each successive moment8. This means that God is continuously active in sustaining every aspect of existence, from the most insignificant particle to the grandest cosmic structure.

This understanding of continuous creation provides a metaphysical foundation for spiritual teachings about divine presence. If God is directly creating each accident at each moment, then divine presence is not abstract or distant but immediate and encompassing. The spiritual seeker who internalizes this understanding may come to perceive God’s hand in all events and experiences, transforming ordinary consciousness into a state of perpetual awareness of divine activity.

Moreover, the atomistic denial of causal connections between events encourages believers to attribute all occurrences directly to God rather than to secondary causes. This perspective can foster a sense of intimacy with the divine and a recognition of complete dependence on God, which are central aspects of Islamic spirituality. As al-Ghazali developed this understanding, nothing can happen without God’s direct intervention, making the whole of creation a continuous manifestation of divine power and will3.

Atomism and Occasionalism: Implications for Spiritual Experience

The occasionalist implications of atomism-the view that God is the only true cause of all events-had profound consequences for understanding spiritual experience. If all apparent causes are merely occasions for God’s direct action, then spiritual experiences are also direct divine gifts rather than the necessary outcomes of spiritual practices or human effort. This understanding shapes how believers approach spiritual disciplines, encouraging humility and gratitude rather than a sense of achievement or entitlement.

Al-Ghazali used the theory of atomism to support his theory of occasionalism3, which provided a metaphysical foundation for understanding mystical experiences as direct divine communications rather than the products of human psychological processes. This framework allowed for the integration of intense mystical experiences within orthodox theological boundaries, validating such experiences while safeguarding theological principles.

Furthermore, the occasionalist perspective challenges the spiritual seeker to recognize divine action even in apparently mundane or difficult circumstances. If God is directly creating each accident at each moment, then even experiences of hardship or suffering must be understood as divinely ordained and potentially meaningful. This perspective can transform the spiritual seeker’s relationship to all aspects of life, encouraging acceptance, patience, and trust in divine wisdom.

Atomism and Sufism

Historical Connections Between Kalam Theology and Sufism

The historical connections between kalam theology, particularly the atomistic theories of the Maturidi and Ashari schools, and Sufism are both complex and profound. Contrary to some popular misconceptions that portray Sufism as a separate or alternative form of Islam, many scholars emphasize that tasawwuf (Sufism) is a science within Islam, alongside other Islamic sciences like Usul al-Fiqh, Tafsir, and Aqeedah10. In classical Islamic terminology, Sufism corresponds to what the Prophet Muhammad described as “Ihsan” or excellence, defined as “worshipping Allah as though you see Him, or knowing that you do not see Him, He sees you”10.

Many prominent Sufi masters were also scholars of the Ashari school of creed10, indicating significant overlap between these intellectual traditions. Even figures from the Deobandi school, often perceived as more “conservative,” practiced tasawwuf, such as Mufti Taqi Usmani, who is a Shaykh in the Ashrafiya tariqa10. This demonstrates that the boundaries between theological schools and Sufi practice were often fluid and permeable rather than rigid.

Furthermore, al-Ghazali, one of the most influential developers of Ashari atomism, was deeply engaged in Sufi practices and wrote extensively on Sufism9. His intellectual journey led him from prestigious academic positions to Sufi practice after he concluded that “there was no way to certain knowledge or the conviction of revelatory truth except through Sufism”9. This trajectory illustrates how theological inquiry, including atomistic theories, could lead naturally into mystical exploration.

How Atomistic Conceptions Shaped Sufi Metaphysics

The atomistic conceptions developed within kalam theology significantly influenced Sufi metaphysics in several ways. First, the emphasis on God’s continuous creation at each moment provided a theoretical foundation for the Sufi experience of witnessing divine action in all phenomena. If God is directly creating each accident at each successive instant, then the Sufi practice of witnessing God’s presence in all things (shahada) has a solid theological grounding.

Second, atomism’s denial of natural causality aligned with and reinforced the Sufi emphasis on God as the only true Agent. This perspective encouraged Sufis to look beyond apparent causes to recognize divine action, a practice that facilitates the spiritual state of tawhid (unity) in which the seeker perceives all actions as ultimately God’s actions. The Ashari theory that what humans perceive as causal relationships are merely God’s customary pattern (ʿādah) of creation8 provided intellectual support for this mystical perspective.

Third, the atomistic conception of time as discrete moments without inherent connection resonated with Sufi teachings about the importance of being present in the “now” (waqt). If each moment is a discrete unit directly created by God, then being fully present to each moment becomes a way of being attentive to divine action. This understanding shaped Sufi practices aimed at cultivating presence and attentiveness to the divine.

Practical Applications in Sufi Practice

The atomistic worldview had numerous practical applications in Sufi practice. One significant application was in the practice of dhikr (remembrance of God). The understanding that God is continuously creating each moment encouraged Sufis to engage in constant remembrance, aligning their consciousness with the divine creative activity that sustains each instant. The atomistic denial of causal connections between moments emphasized the importance of renewing dhikr at each moment rather than assuming that previous remembrance carries forward automatically.

Another application was in the Sufi practice of tawakkul (trust in God). The atomistic framework, with its emphasis on God as the only true cause, provided a metaphysical basis for complete trust in divine providence. If God is directly creating each accident at each moment according to His wisdom, then anxiety about the future becomes unnecessary, and trust in God becomes the rational response to reality as it is.

Furthermore, the atomistic understanding influenced the Sufi approach to spiritual states (ahwal) and stations (maqamat). If each moment is discrete and directly created by God, then spiritual states must be understood as divine gifts in each moment rather than personal possessions. This perspective encouraged humility and gratitude rather than spiritual pride, as the continuation of any spiritual state depends entirely on God’s continuous bestowal rather than the seeker’s achievement.

Modern Relevance and Contemporary Implications

Atomism and Modern Physics: Convergences and Divergences

The question of how Islamic atomism relates to modern physics has intrigued both Muslim scholars and historians of science. Some observers have noted similarities between certain aspects of Islamic atomism and quantum physics, particularly regarding the discrete nature of reality at the quantum level. As noted in one source, “The name quantum mechanics derives from the observation that some physical quantities can change only in discrete amounts (Latin quanta), and not in a continuous (cf. analog) way”2, which bears some resemblance to the atomistic conception of discrete reality.

However, it’s essential to recognize significant differences between Islamic atomism and modern quantum theories. Islamic atomism was primarily a metaphysical framework developed to address theological concerns rather than a scientific theory aimed at explaining physical phenomena through empirical investigation. Moreover, the Islamic atomistic conception included the critical element of continuous divine creation, which has no parallel in modern physics.

Additionally, while Islamic atoms were considered non-material or ideal in character2, quantum particles, despite their wave-particle duality and other counterintuitive properties, are still considered physical entities subject to natural laws. The Islamic atom, by contrast, was conceived as having “position, not bulk,” being “isolated from and independent of one another,” with “absolute void between any two monads”2.

Despite these differences, exploring the relationship between Islamic atomism and modern physics can be intellectually fruitful, potentially offering new perspectives on both historical theological concepts and contemporary scientific theories. This dialogue between traditional Islamic thought and modern science exemplifies the continuing relevance of classical Islamic intellectual traditions.

Contemporary Theological Applications

The atomistic frameworks developed by the Maturidi and Ashari schools continue to have relevance for contemporary theological discussions within Islam. As Muslims engage with modern scientific worldviews, the sophisticated metaphysical systems developed by these schools provide resources for articulating Islamic perspectives on causality, divine action, and the nature of reality.

For instance, the atomistic denial of natural causality offers a theological framework for addressing questions about divine action in a world increasingly understood through scientific explanations. Rather than seeing scientific and theological explanations as competing accounts, the atomistic perspective suggests they operate on different levels-science describing God’s habitual patterns (ʿādah) and theology addressing their ultimate source in divine will.

Furthermore, the atomistic conception of continuous creation provides a theological language for discussing divine involvement in evolutionary processes, quantum phenomena, and other scientific domains. By emphasizing God’s activity at each moment, this perspective avoids both deism (which distances God from ongoing creation) and pantheism (which identifies God with creation), maintaining the Islamic emphasis on both divine transcendence and immanence.

Relevance for Contemporary Islamic Spirituality

The atomistic conceptions developed by the Maturidi and Ashari schools also remain relevant for contemporary Islamic spirituality. In a modern context often characterized by materialistic assumptions, consumerism, and technological distraction, the atomistic emphasis on divine presence and action in each moment offers a powerful counter-narrative that can enrich spiritual life.

The atomistic denial of natural causality challenges believers to look beyond apparent causes to recognize divine action, fostering a spiritual awareness that transcends materialistic assumptions. This perspective can help contemporary Muslims navigate between scientific understanding and spiritual awareness, recognizing that scientific explanations describe how God habitually acts rather than replacing divine agency.

Moreover, the atomistic emphasis on the discrete nature of time and the importance of each moment resonates with contemporary spiritual teachings about mindfulness and presence. In a world of constant digital distraction and future anxiety, the recognition that each moment is directly created by God encourages believers to be fully present to divine action in the now, cultivating a spirituality of presence rather than distraction.

Finally, the atomistic understanding of continuous creation provides a metaphysical foundation for environmental ethics, encouraging believers to recognize God’s ongoing creative activity in the natural world and their responsibility as stewards of this divine creation. This perspective can motivate ecological awareness and action grounded in theological principles rather than merely pragmatic considerations.

Conclusion: The Enduring Legacy of Islamic Atomism

Philosophical Significance

The atomistic theories developed by the Maturidi and Ashari schools represent a remarkable philosophical achievement with enduring significance. By transforming inherited Greek and Indian atomistic concepts into a sophisticated metaphysical system aligned with Islamic monotheism, these theologians demonstrated the creative intellectual capacity of Islamic thought. Rather than simply adopting foreign philosophical frameworks, they critically engaged with these traditions, modifying and developing them to serve theological purposes.

The philosophical significance of Islamic atomism extends beyond its historical context. Its sophisticated treatment of questions about time, causality, substance, and accident continues to offer conceptual resources for engaging with perennial philosophical problems. The atomistic denial of natural causality, in particular, represents a distinctive philosophical position that challenges assumptions about causal necessity that have dominated much of Western philosophical tradition.

Furthermore, the integration of atomistic physics with theological metaphysics exemplifies an approach to knowledge that resists the modern compartmentalization of disciplines. By developing a unified framework that addressed both physical and metaphysical questions, the Maturidi and Ashari theologians demonstrated how a comprehensive worldview could integrate diverse domains of knowledge within a coherent system.

Theological Legacy

The theological legacy of Islamic atomism is evident in its profound influence on Islamic thought about divine action, human freedom, and the nature of reality. By providing a metaphysical foundation for affirming both divine sovereignty and human responsibility, atomistic theories helped resolve tensions between seemingly contradictory theological commitments.

For the Asharis, atomism supported their theory of kasb (acquisition), which maintained that God creates human actions while humans acquire responsibility for them8. For the Maturidis, atomism provided a framework for understanding divine creation while still affirming a meaningful degree of human freedom19. These theological applications demonstrate the versatility of atomism as a conceptual framework for addressing complex theological questions.

Moreover, the atomistic emphasis on continuous creation provided a powerful theological vision of divine involvement in the world that avoided both deism and pantheism. By affirming God as the direct creator of each accident at each moment while maintaining the ontological distinction between Creator and creation, this perspective preserved the Islamic emphasis on both divine transcendence and immanence.

Spiritual and Mystical Dimensions

Perhaps the most enduring legacy of Islamic atomism lies in its spiritual and mystical dimensions. By emphasizing God’s continuous creative activity at each moment, atomism provided a metaphysical foundation for spiritual practices aimed at cultivating awareness of divine presence. This understanding transformed daily experience into an opportunity for witnessing divine action, making the whole of life a potential domain for spiritual awareness.

The atomistic denial of natural causality encouraged believers to look beyond apparent causes to recognize God as the ultimate cause of all events. This reorientation of perception supported the spiritual practice of tawhid (unity) in which the seeker recognizes all actions as ultimately God’s actions. When internalized, this perspective transforms ordinary consciousness into a state of perpetual awareness of divine activity.

Finally, the atomistic conception of time as discrete moments directly created by God encouraged spiritual presence and attentiveness to the now. This focus on the present moment resonates with spiritual teachings across many traditions about the importance of presence and mindfulness. By recognizing each moment as a direct divine gift, believers are encouraged to approach life with gratitude, attentiveness, and reverence.

In conclusion, the atomistic theories developed by the Maturidi and Ashari schools represent a sophisticated intellectual achievement with enduring philosophical, theological, and spiritual significance. By providing a metaphysical framework that bridged the apparent gap between the transcendent divine and the experienced world, these theories offered a comprehensive vision of reality that continues to inspire and challenge contemporary thought. Far from being merely historical artifacts, these atomistic conceptions offer valuable resources for engaging with perennial questions about divine action, human responsibility, and the nature of reality-questions that remain as relevant today as they were when these theories were first developed.

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  • Bulğen, Mehmet.
    “al-Māturīdī and Atomism.” PhilArchive (2019).10

  • “Atomic Concept During Medieval Muslim Scholarship.”
    Saudi Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences 2, no. 9 (2017): 804–811.6

  • “The Role of Atomism in the Groups of Kalam.”
    MuslimMatters.org (April 9, 2008).9

  • “Imam Maturidi and The Accident (Aradh) of Substance (Jawhar).”
    Ghayb.com (2015).11

  • “Islamic Theology in the Turkish Republic.”
    The New Arab (November 10, 2021).7

  • “Transcendent God, Rational World: A Māturīdī Theology.”
    OAPEN Library (2023).8

  • “An Introduction to the Schismatic Differences Between Islamic Theological Schools on Divine Attributes.”
    Muslimtown.wordpress.com (2023).4

  • “Understanding the Concept of Islamic Sufism.”
    Journal of Education & Social Policy 1, no. 1 (2014): 59–67.3

Non-English Scholarship

  • Özervarlı, M. Sait.
    Mâturîdîlik ve Osmanlı Düşüncesi. Istanbul: İz Yayıncılık, 2003. (Turkish)

  • İlyas Çelebi.
    Mâturîdîlik: Tarihi ve Doktriner Gelişimi. Istanbul: İnsan Yayınları, 2016. (Turkish)

  • Ahmet Karamustafa.
    “Maturidi Thought and Its Modern Reception in Turkey.” In Islamic Theology in the Turkish Republic, ed. by various authors. Istanbul: Turkish Religious Foundation, 2018. (Turkish/English)

  • M. Sait Özervarlı.
    “Mâturîdîlik ve Modernite: Türkiye’de Mâturîdî Düşüncenin Yeniden Doğuşu.” İslam Araştırmaları Dergisi 32 (2014): 1–24. (Turkish)

  • İsmail Taşpınar.
    Mâturîdîlik ve Yorum Geleneği. Ankara: Ankara Okulu Yayınları, 2011. (Turkish)

  • Mohammad Ali Amir-Moezzi.
    La religion discrète: Croyances et pratiques spirituelles dans l’islam shi’ite. Paris: Vrin, 2006. (French)

  • Jean Jolivet.
    “Le kalām et la philosophie: la notion d’accident chez les Ash’arites.” In Études sur Avicenne et l’averroïsme, Paris: Vrin, 1988. (French)

Sufi and Spirituality Studies

  • Schimmel, Annemarie.
    Mystical Dimensions of Islam. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1975.

  • Chittick, William C.
    Sufism: A Short Introduction. Oxford: Oneworld, 2000.

  • Trimingham, J. Spencer.
    The Sufi Orders in Islam. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1971.

  • Knysh, Alexander.
    Islamic Mysticism: A Short History. Leiden: Brill, 2000.

  • Ernst, Carl W.
    Sufism: An Introduction to the Mystical Tradition of Islam. Boulder: Shambhala, 1997.

Comparative and Contextual Works

  • Bala, Arun.
    The Dialogue of Civilizations in the Birth of Modern Science. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006.

  • Nasr, Seyyed Hossein, and Oliver Leaman, eds.
    History of Islamic Philosophy. London: Routledge, 1996.

  • Jolivet, Jean, and Roshdi Rashed, eds.
    Les débuts de la philosophie arabe. Paris: Vrin, 1997.

Digital and Online Resources